Optimization

Training a neural network is nothing more than finding the bottom of a valley.

Type: Build Language: Python Prerequisites: Phase 1, Lessons 04-05 (Derivatives, Gradients) Time: ~75 minutes

Learning Objectives

Implement vanilla gradient descent, SGD with momentum, and Adam from scratch
Compare optimizer convergence on the Rosenbrock function and explain why Adam adapts per-weight learning rates
Distinguish convex from non-convex loss landscapes and explain the role of saddle points in high dimensions
Configure learning rate schedules (step decay, cosine annealing, warmup) for training stability

The Problem

You have a loss function. It tells you how wrong your model is. You have gradients. They tell you which direction makes the loss worse. Now you need a strategy for walking downhill.

The naive approach is simple: move opposite the gradient. Scale the step by some number called the learning rate. Repeat. This is gradient descent, and it works. But "works" has caveats. Too large a learning rate and you overshoot the valley entirely, bouncing between walls. Too small and you crawl toward the answer over thousands of unnecessary steps. Hit a saddle point and you stop moving even though you have not found a minimum.

Every optimizer in deep learning is an answer to the same question: how do you get to the bottom of the valley faster and more reliably?

The Concept

What optimization means

Optimization is finding the input values that minimize (or maximize) a function. In machine learning, the function is the loss. The inputs are the model's weights. Training is optimization.

minimize L(w) where:
  L = loss function
  w = model weights (could be millions of parameters)

Gradient descent (vanilla)

The simplest optimizer. Compute the gradient of the loss with respect to every weight. Move each weight in the opposite direction of its gradient. Scale the step by the learning rate.

w = w - lr * gradient

That is the entire algorithm. One line.

mermaid

graph TD
    A["* Starting point (high loss)"] --> B["Moving downhill along gradient"]
    B --> C["Approaching minimum"]
    C --> D["o Minimum (low loss)"]

Learning rate: the most important hyperparameter

The learning rate controls step size. It determines everything about convergence.

mermaid

graph LR
    subgraph TooLarge["Too Large (lr = 1.0)"]
        A1["Step 1"] -->|overshoot| A2["Step 2"]
        A2 -->|overshoot| A3["Step 3"]
        A3 -->|diverging| A4["..."]
    end
    subgraph TooSmall["Too Small (lr = 0.0001)"]
        B1["Step 1"] -->|tiny step| B2["Step 2"]
        B2 -->|tiny step| B3["Step 3"]
        B3 -->|10,000 steps later| B4["Minimum"]
    end
    subgraph JustRight["Just Right (lr = 0.01)"]
        C1["Start"] --> C2["..."] --> C3["Converged in ~100 steps"]
    end

There is no formula for the right learning rate. You find it by experiment. Common starting points: 0.001 for Adam, 0.01 for SGD with momentum.

SGD vs batch vs mini-batch

Vanilla gradient descent computes the gradient over the entire dataset before taking one step. This is called batch gradient descent. It is stable but slow.

Stochastic gradient descent (SGD) computes the gradient on a single random sample and steps immediately. It is noisy but fast.

Mini-batch gradient descent splits the difference. Compute the gradient over a small batch (32, 64, 128, 256 samples), then step. This is what everyone actually uses.

Variant	Batch size	Gradient quality	Speed per step	Noise
Batch GD	Entire dataset	Exact	Slow	None
SGD	1 sample	Very noisy	Fast	High
Mini-batch	32-256	Good estimate	Balanced	Moderate

The noise in SGD and mini-batch is not a bug. It helps escape shallow local minima and saddle points.

Momentum: the ball rolling downhill

Vanilla gradient descent only looks at the current gradient. If the gradient zigzags (common in narrow valleys), progress is slow. Momentum fixes this by accumulating past gradients into a velocity term.

v = beta * v + gradient
w = w - lr * v

The analogy: a ball rolling downhill. It does not stop and restart at every bump. It builds speed in consistent directions and dampens oscillations.

mermaid

graph TD
    subgraph Without["Without Momentum (zigzag, slow)"]
        W1["Start"] -->|left| W2[" "]
        W2 -->|right| W3[" "]
        W3 -->|left| W4[" "]
        W4 -->|right| W5[" "]
        W5 -->|left| W6[" "]
        W6 --> W7["Minimum"]
    end
    subgraph With["With Momentum (smooth, fast)"]
        M1["Start"] --> M2[" "] --> M3[" "] --> M4["Minimum"]
    end

beta (typically 0.9) controls how much history to keep. Higher beta means more momentum, smoother paths, but slower response to direction changes.

Adam: adaptive learning rates

Different weights need different learning rates. A weight that rarely gets large gradients should take bigger steps when it finally does. A weight that gets huge gradients constantly should take smaller steps.

Adam (Adaptive Moment Estimation) tracks two things per weight:

First moment (m): running average of gradients (like momentum)
Second moment (v): running average of squared gradients (gradient magnitude)

m = beta1 * m + (1 - beta1) * gradient
v = beta2 * v + (1 - beta2) * gradient^2

m_hat = m / (1 - beta1^t)    bias correction
v_hat = v / (1 - beta2^t)    bias correction

w = w - lr * m_hat / (sqrt(v_hat) + epsilon)

The division by sqrt(v_hat) is the key insight. Weights with large gradients get divided by a large number (small effective step). Weights with small gradients get divided by a small number (large effective step). Each weight gets its own adaptive learning rate.

Default hyperparameters: lr=0.001, beta1=0.9, beta2=0.999, epsilon=1e-8. These defaults work well for most problems.

Learning rate schedules

A fixed learning rate is a compromise. Early in training, you want large steps to make fast progress. Late in training, you want small steps to fine-tune near the minimum.

Common schedules:

Schedule	Formula	Use case
Step decay	lr = lr * factor every N epochs	Simple, manual control
Exponential decay	lr = lr_0 * decay^t	Smooth reduction
Cosine annealing	lr = lr_min + 0.5 * (lr_max - lr_min) * (1 + cos(pi * t / T))	Transformers, modern training
Warmup + decay	Linear ramp up, then decay	Large models, prevents early instability

Convex vs non-convex

A convex function has one minimum. Gradient descent always finds it. A quadratic like f(x) = x^2 is convex.

Neural network loss functions are non-convex. They have many local minima, saddle points, and flat regions.

mermaid

graph LR
    subgraph Convex["Convex: One valley, one answer"]
        direction TB
        CV1["High loss"] --> CV2["Global minimum"]
    end
    subgraph NonConvex["Non-convex: Multiple valleys, saddle points"]
        direction TB
        NC1["Start"] --> NC2["Local minimum"]
        NC1 --> NC3["Saddle point"]
        NC1 --> NC4["Global minimum"]
    end

In practice, local minima in high-dimensional neural networks are rarely a problem. Most local minima have loss values close to the global minimum. Saddle points (flat in some directions, curved in others) are the real obstacle. Momentum and noise from mini-batches help escape them.

Loss landscape visualization

The loss is a function of all weights. For a model with 1 million weights, the loss landscape lives in 1,000,001-dimensional space. We visualize it by picking two random directions in weight space and plotting the loss along those directions, producing a 2D surface.

mermaid

graph TD
    HL["High loss region"] --> SP["Saddle point"]
    HL --> LM["Local minimum"]
    SP --> LM
    SP --> GM["Global minimum"]
    LM -.->|"shallow barrier"| GM
    style HL fill:#ff6666,color:#000
    style SP fill:#ffcc66,color:#000
    style LM fill:#66ccff,color:#000
    style GM fill:#66ff66,color:#000

Sharp minima generalize poorly. Flat minima generalize well. This is one reason SGD with momentum often outperforms Adam on final test accuracy: its noise prevents settling into sharp minima.

Build It

Step 1: Define a test function

The Rosenbrock function is a classic optimization benchmark. Its minimum is at (1, 1) inside a narrow curved valley that is easy to find but hard to follow.

f(x, y) = (1 - x)^2 + 100 * (y - x^2)^2

python

def rosenbrock(params):
    x, y = params
    return (1 - x) ** 2 + 100 * (y - x ** 2) ** 2

def rosenbrock_gradient(params):
    x, y = params
    df_dx = -2 * (1 - x) + 200 * (y - x ** 2) * (-2 * x)
    df_dy = 200 * (y - x ** 2)
    return [df_dx, df_dy]

Step 2: Vanilla gradient descent

python

class GradientDescent:
    def __init__(self, lr=0.001):
        self.lr = lr

    def step(self, params, grads):
        return [p - self.lr * g for p, g in zip(params, grads)]

Step 3: SGD with momentum

python

class SGDMomentum:
    def __init__(self, lr=0.001, momentum=0.9):
        self.lr = lr
        self.momentum = momentum
        self.velocity = None

    def step(self, params, grads):
        if self.velocity is None:
            self.velocity = [0.0] * len(params)
        self.velocity = [
            self.momentum * v + g
            for v, g in zip(self.velocity, grads)
        ]
        return [p - self.lr * v for p, v in zip(params, self.velocity)]

Step 4: Adam

python

class Adam:
    def __init__(self, lr=0.001, beta1=0.9, beta2=0.999, epsilon=1e-8):
        self.lr = lr
        self.beta1 = beta1
        self.beta2 = beta2
        self.epsilon = epsilon
        self.m = None
        self.v = None
        self.t = 0

    def step(self, params, grads):
        if self.m is None:
            self.m = [0.0] * len(params)
            self.v = [0.0] * len(params)

        self.t += 1

        self.m = [
            self.beta1 * m + (1 - self.beta1) * g
            for m, g in zip(self.m, grads)
        ]
        self.v = [
            self.beta2 * v + (1 - self.beta2) * g ** 2
            for v, g in zip(self.v, grads)
        ]

        m_hat = [m / (1 - self.beta1 ** self.t) for m in self.m]
        v_hat = [v / (1 - self.beta2 ** self.t) for v in self.v]

        return [
            p - self.lr * mh / (vh ** 0.5 + self.epsilon)
            for p, mh, vh in zip(params, m_hat, v_hat)
        ]

Step 5: Run and compare

python

def optimize(optimizer, func, grad_func, start, steps=5000):
    params = list(start)
    history = [params[:]]
    for _ in range(steps):
        grads = grad_func(params)
        params = optimizer.step(params, grads)
        history.append(params[:])
    return history

start = [-1.0, 1.0]

gd_history = optimize(GradientDescent(lr=0.0005), rosenbrock, rosenbrock_gradient, start)
sgd_history = optimize(SGDMomentum(lr=0.0001, momentum=0.9), rosenbrock, rosenbrock_gradient, start)
adam_history = optimize(Adam(lr=0.01), rosenbrock, rosenbrock_gradient, start)

for name, history in [("GD", gd_history), ("SGD+M", sgd_history), ("Adam", adam_history)]:
    final = history[-1]
    loss = rosenbrock(final)
    print(f"{name:6s} -> x={final[0]:.6f}, y={final[1]:.6f}, loss={loss:.8f}")

Expected output: Adam converges fastest. SGD with momentum follows a smoother path. Vanilla GD makes slow progress along the narrow valley.

Use It

In practice, use PyTorch or JAX optimizers. They handle parameter groups, weight decay, gradient clipping, and GPU acceleration.

python

import torch

model = torch.nn.Linear(784, 10)

sgd = torch.optim.SGD(model.parameters(), lr=0.01, momentum=0.9)
adam = torch.optim.Adam(model.parameters(), lr=0.001)
adamw = torch.optim.AdamW(model.parameters(), lr=0.001, weight_decay=0.01)

scheduler = torch.optim.lr_scheduler.CosineAnnealingLR(adam, T_max=100)

Rules of thumb:

Start with Adam (lr=0.001). It works for most problems without tuning.
Switch to SGD with momentum (lr=0.01, momentum=0.9) when you need the best final accuracy and can afford more tuning.
Use AdamW (Adam with decoupled weight decay) for transformers.
Always use a learning rate schedule for training runs longer than a few epochs.
If training is unstable, reduce the learning rate. If training is too slow, increase it.

Ship It

This lesson produces a prompt for choosing the right optimizer. See outputs/prompt-optimizer-guide.md.

The optimizer classes built here reappear in Phase 3 when we train a neural network from scratch.

Exercises

Learning rate sweep. Run vanilla gradient descent on the Rosenbrock function with learning rates [0.0001, 0.0005, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01]. Plot or print the final loss after 5000 steps for each. Find the largest learning rate that still converges.
Momentum comparison. Run SGD with momentum values [0.0, 0.5, 0.9, 0.99] on the Rosenbrock function. Track the loss at every step. Which momentum value converges fastest? Which overshoots?
Saddle point escape. Define the function f(x, y) = x^2 - y^2 (a saddle point at the origin). Start at (0.01, 0.01). Compare how vanilla GD, SGD with momentum, and Adam behave. Which escapes the saddle point?
Implement learning rate decay. Add an exponential decay schedule to the GradientDescent class: lr = lr_0 * 0.999^step. Compare convergence with and without decay on the Rosenbrock function.

Key Terms

Term	What people say	What it actually means
Gradient descent	"Go downhill"	Update weights by subtracting the gradient scaled by the learning rate. The most basic optimizer.
Learning rate	"Step size"	A scalar that controls how far each update moves the weights. Too large causes divergence. Too small wastes compute.
Momentum	"Keep rolling"	Accumulate past gradients into a velocity vector. Dampens oscillations and accelerates movement through consistent directions.
SGD	"Random sampling"	Stochastic gradient descent. Compute gradient on a random subset instead of the full dataset. Almost always means mini-batch SGD in practice.
Mini-batch	"A chunk of data"	A small subset of training data (32-256 samples) used to estimate the gradient. Balances speed and gradient accuracy.
Adam	"The default optimizer"	Adaptive Moment Estimation. Tracks per-weight running averages of gradients and squared gradients to give each weight its own learning rate.
Bias correction	"Fix the cold start"	Adam's first and second moments are initialized to zero. Bias correction divides by (1 - beta^t) to compensate during early steps.
Learning rate schedule	"Change lr over time"	A function that adjusts the learning rate during training. Large steps early, small steps late.
Convex function	"One valley"	A function where any local minimum is the global minimum. Gradient descent always finds it. Neural network losses are not convex.
Saddle point	"Flat but not a minimum"	A point where the gradient is zero but it is a minimum in some directions and a maximum in others. Common in high dimensions.
Loss landscape	"The terrain"	The loss function plotted over weight space. Visualized by slicing along two random directions.
Convergence	"Getting there"	The optimizer has reached a point where further steps do not meaningfully reduce the loss.

Optimization ​

Learning Objectives ​

The Problem ​

The Concept ​

What optimization means ​

Gradient descent (vanilla) ​

Learning rate: the most important hyperparameter ​

SGD vs batch vs mini-batch ​

Momentum: the ball rolling downhill ​

Adam: adaptive learning rates ​

Learning rate schedules ​

Convex vs non-convex ​

Loss landscape visualization ​

Build It ​

Step 1: Define a test function ​

Step 2: Vanilla gradient descent ​

Step 3: SGD with momentum ​

Step 4: Adam ​

Step 5: Run and compare ​

Use It ​

Ship It ​

Exercises ​

Key Terms ​

Further Reading ​

Optimization

Learning Objectives

The Problem

The Concept

What optimization means

Gradient descent (vanilla)

Learning rate: the most important hyperparameter

SGD vs batch vs mini-batch

Momentum: the ball rolling downhill

Adam: adaptive learning rates

Learning rate schedules

Convex vs non-convex

Loss landscape visualization

Build It

Step 1: Define a test function

Step 2: Vanilla gradient descent

Step 3: SGD with momentum

Step 4: Adam

Step 5: Run and compare

Use It

Ship It

Exercises

Key Terms

Further Reading